OUR GOLDEN LANDSCAPES:

An historical perspective on the ecology and management of our tussock grasslands and associated mountain lands.

Hocken Lecture, 2004: Alan Mark, Botany Department, University of Otago.

Summary. Government's recent purchase of some pastoral leasehold land, along with tenure review of the South Island high country is history in the making. It represents one of the largest land transfer exercises in the country's history and is the culmination of over 150 years of widespread concern and debate over management of the high country. This long debate has been marked by an extraordinary capacity to ignore the evidence of tussock grassland degradation through the combined effects of stock grazing, fire and pests. I have witnessed much of this degradation and debate through a lifetime of ecological research in New Zealand's tussock grasslands.

The story of our indigenous grasslands starts around five million years ago when they first became widespread in New Zealand as a result of extensive mountain building and associated changes in climate. The grasslands were most extensive 12-10 thousand years ago around the end of the last ice-age, but by 2500 years ago they dominated the alpine zone and the interior basins of the South Island, but probably occurred locally in most regions of the country. Between 2500-1500 years ago the grasslands expanded again through infrequent natural fires, particularly in the South Island interior.

There was a dramatic increase in fire frequency following the arrival of Polynesian settlers about 800 years ago and the grasslands expanded again in response, particularly in the interior of both islands. Frequent recurring fires maintained the grasslands so that they reached their greatest extent at the time of European settlement in the 1840s. These grasslands, appearing lush and productive, impressed the early European settlers with their apparent grazing potential. As with the grazing lands of Australia, the South Island high country remained under government ownership and all areas were leased, in large blocks, for extensive grazing. However, the government required stocking rates to increase rapidly and, with only very limited fencing and frequent usually uncontrolled burning, "exploitative pastoralism" began. The combination of persistent burning and heavy grazing by mammals, an entirely new phenomenon, caused serious degradation of the native grasslands and their soils.

The historical records document the frequent expressions of concern by scientists and others, to the tussock grassland management that initially was largely dictated by a government dominated by the colonial masters in Britain. Botanist and artist John Buchanan, way back in 1868, noted that "nothing can show greater ignorance of grass conservation than repeated burning which is so frequently practised." Nothing really changed and by 1910, agriculturalist Alfred Cockayne reported problems caused by burning and, in the same year, the Commission on Canterbury Runs Classification reported that large areas of the Mackenzie Basin were "almost depleted of all vegetation save sorrel and scabweed." In 1919, distinguished ecologist Leonard Cockayne wrote that indiscriminate burning had turned acres of tussock grassland "into stony debris." The following year, the Commission on the Southern Pastoral Runs reported on the depletion of tussock grasslands as a result of general mismanagement, and that "mountain sheep stations have gone backward, a state of affairs not creditable to the Dominion." Similar concerns were expressed by Dunedin ecologist George Thomson (1922), DSIR ecologist Vic. Zotov (1938), DSIR soil scientists Harry Gibbs and Jim Raeside, Auckland University Geography Professor Ken Cumberland, and a Royal Commission (all 1945), Canterbury ecologist Philippa Barker (1953), and the Tussock Grasslands Research Committee, comprising senior government ecologists-agriculturalists-soil scientists (1954). Senior botanist Lucy Moore, one of the contributors, stated in a paper the following year that because the tussock grassland "dominants are perennials with very long lives it has many of the characteristics of a forest and few of a short rotation pasture. Like a forest, it is the product of a long slow development, and like a forest it is much easier to destroy than to rebuild."

Remarkably, it was only in the late 1950's that long overdue ecological studies of the dominant snow tussocks of the South Island high country were initiated by me and others. These studies confirmed that snow tussocks are very long-lived, such is their method of self-perpetuation. This is provided tussocks are not seriously damaged or killed outright with severe grazing, particularly when recovering from fire, when they are relatively palatable and thus highly vulnerable to heavy grazing. Application of these findings to management of the upland snow tussock grasslands was generally slow, even resisted by some runholders and local authorities with management oversight. So the degrading effects of traditional pastoralism continued in many areas, which resulted in more adverse reports from many of those researching the tussock grasslands. These included DSIR botanist Henry Connor, and soil scientists Alan Hewitt and Les Basher, as well as Lincoln University's Kevin O'Connor and Marta Treskonova. In 1992 Chris Kerr, working for Lincoln University's Mountain Lands Institute, described the high country as showing "a large scale 'systems failure' in the management of one of New Zealand's largest land resources " and a "classic" and "truly ignoble example" by world standards. He attributed it to the "collective failure" of the overseeing agencies, the land occupiers and their advisors. Next came the 1994 "South Island High Country Review", commissioned by the Ministers of Conservation, Environment and Agriculture, and produced by a group of nine farmers, professionals and consultants, chaired by Otago Regional Council's CEO, Graeme Martin. They reported deep concern about the "historic and continuing impact of grazing … on the condition of the soils and vegetation of the pastoral high country. Burning has caused more rapid change" and "a decline in soil condition is very likely on the unimproved lands. These comprise about 80% of the land area … and receive no inputs. … Long-term pastoral use of extensive areas of South Island high country is unlikely to be sustainable." A year later the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment reported that "the government system for managing tussock grasslands is woefully inadequate" and that "there is limited central government guidance on how the integrated management of the tussock grasslands should be achieved and how the national interests should be protected." She advised regional councils to take a "precautionary approach" in granting burning consents. As recently as 1997, soil scientist Peter McIntosh wrote that there is "compelling evidence that continued grazing and burning of South Island tussock grasslands without nutrient inputs, is unsustainable."

There has been several government programmes for the high country, such as subsidised run conservation plans, initiated by catchment boards from the early 1940s with some $10.53 million spent for retirement of 483,000 ha on 113 high country runs. However, there was negligible surrender of the retired land, even though this was a condition of the subsidised assistance. Government's Land Development Encouragement Loans of 1970-83 promoted much unsustainable development in the high country, while the Protected Natural Areas Programme, was initiated in 1983, to survey and protect "The Best of What Remains" in the high country which, up to this time, had virtually no areas protected for baseline research and/or conservation. The Rabbit and Land Management Programme of 1986-96, directed $30 million to addressing problems of the semi-arid high country regions, while Landcare groups were promoted in the early 1990s, based on an Australian model, to promote sustainable management of rural communities through environmental, economic and social reforms. Then, in 1997, came the illegal introduction of RHD while government was procrastinating on its use for rabbit control, particularly in the high country.

There were also periodic legislative responses to the continuing degradation of the high country. The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act of 1941 established catchment boards to provide advice and subsidies for improved management of high country runs. The 1948 amendment to the Land Act provided much increased security of tenure and other rights for runholders (occupation, pasturage, trespass) plus several privileges, where permission was required for certain management practices: burning, fencing, cultivation, oversowing-topdressing, tracking, etc. Provision was also made for tenure review. The Resource Management Act of 1991 was to promote the sustainable management of natural and physical resources but burning permits were issued by regional councils without notification. In 2000 the Otago Regional Council developed a voluntary "Code of Practice for Vegetation Burning." Adjoining councils adopted different procedures while the frequency of burning declined.

Most recently, the Crown Pastoral Land Act was introduced by the National government in 1998, specifically to address the complex issues surrounding the continued degradation and multiple values of the South Island high country leasehold lands. This Act facilitates high country lessees initiating a review of their leasehold tenure, so as to free-hold the 'productive' land on their runs while land with 'significant inherent [conservation/recreation] values' reverts to Crown control and management. Described by the initiating Minister Denis Marshall, as offering a 'win-win' situation for the farmers, government and the general public, he predicted tenure review would add about 1 million hectares to the conservation lands and address the serious under-representation of tussock grasslands and associated vegetation in our protected areas network. Twenty of the 304 pastoral leases have now completed tenure review and another 174 are in the process. Although concerns about tenure review have been expressed recently by some runholders and their advocate, the High Country Accord, nothing has changed since the Labour government took over the exercise, as Minister Chris Carter told the recent meeting of high country runholders in Queenstown. The government reviewed its tenure review objectives last year and adopted principles to: promote ecologically sustainable land use, establish a network of high country parks and reserves, secure public access, and foster sustainability and growth of rural communities. The government has aleady purchased some high country properties and announced that Molesworth Station, the country's largest high country farm (180,000 ha), will be transferred from Land Information N.Z. to the Department of Conservation, and become a high country park, with cattle farming continuing under licence by Landcorp, as at present.

The freeholding of whole properties and covenanting of areas with high conservation values, as advocated by some runholders and the High Country Accord, is unacceptable to the present government (and is not provided for in the legislation). This is because public access is not guaranteed, periodic grazing in times of drought would prevent ecological restoration, and management would be uncoordinated, being the responsibility of individual owners.

The objectives of the government's high country policy are designed to address the long-standing problems of the South Island high country. Assuming fulfilment of this policy, a series of high country parks and reserves through the central-eastern South Island tussock grasslands and associated mountain lands will become readily available for use and enjoyment by the public. The public will also benefit through more opportunities for recreation and ecotourism, as well as the 'ecosystem services' provided by improved soil, water and nature conservation, and particularly maximising the production of usable fresh water from the upland snow tussock grasslands, for a wide variety of human needs.

References.

Barker, A.P. 1953. An ecological study of tussock grassland, Hunter Hills, South Canterbury. D.S.I.R. Bull. 107. 58 pp.

Basher, L.R., Meurk, C.D., Tate, K.R. 1990. The effects of burning on soil properties and vegetation. D.S.I.R. Land Res. Tech.Rep. 18. 93 pp.

Buchanan, J 1868. Sketch of the botany of Otago. Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1 (111): 22-53.

Cockayne, A.H. 1910. The natural pastures of new Zealand 1. The effect of burning on tussock country. J. Dept. Agric. 1: 7-15.

Cockayne, L. 1919. An economic investigation of the montane grasslands of New Zealand 1. Introduction. N.Z.J. Agric. 19: 129-138.

Commission on the Canterbury Pastoral Runs Classification. 1910. Report. App. J. House of Reps. 1: C12. 19 pp.

Commission to report on Southern Pastoral Runs. 1920. Report. App. J. House of Reps. C15. 24 pp.

Connor, H.E. 1992. The botany of change in tussock grasslands in the Mackenzie Country, South Canterbury, New Zealand. J. N. Z. Mtn. Lands Inst. Rev. 49: 1-31.

Cumberland, K.B. 1945. Burning tussock grassland: A geographic survey. N. Z. Geogr. 1: 149-164.

Gibbs, H.S., Raeside, J.D. 1945. Soil erosion in the high country of the South Island. D.S.I.R. Bull. 92. 72 pp.

Hewitt, A.E., McIntosh, P.D. 1996. Soil organic matter in the South Island high country. Landcare Res. Sci. Ser. 18. 34 pp.

Kerr, C.J. 1992. The high country in transition: Some implication for occupiers and administrators. Tuss. Grassl. Mtn. Lands. Inst. Rev. 49: 32-50.

McIntosh, P. 1997. Nutrient changes in tussock grasslands, South Island, New Zealand. Ambio 26: 147-151.

Mark, A.F. 1965. Effects of management practices on narrow-leaved snow tussock, Chionochloa rigida. N.Z.J.Bot. 3: 300-319.

Mark, A.F. 1994. Effects of burning and grazing on the sustainable utilisation of upland snow tussock (Chionochloa spp.) rangelands for pastoralism in South Island, New Zealand. Aust. J. Bot. 42: 149-161.

Martin, G., Garden, P., Meister, A., Penno, B., Sheath, G., Stephenson, G., Urquhart, R. 1994. South Island high country review: Final report from the working party on sustainable land management. Ministers of Conservation, Agriculture and Environment. 184 pp.

Moore, L.B. 1956. The plants of the tussock grassland. Proc. N.Z.Ecol.Soc. 3: 7-8.

O'Connor, K.F. 1982 The implications of past exploitation and current developments to the conservation of South Island tussock grasslands. N.Z.J.Ecol. 5: 97-107.

O'Connor,K.F., Harris, P.S. 1991. Biophysical and cultural factors affecting the sustainability of high country pastoral land uses. Intl. Conf. Sust. Land Mgmte. Proc. Napier, Nov., 1991.

Parliamnetary Commissioner for the Environment. 1995. A review of the Government system for managing the South Island tussock grasslands: With particular reference to tussock burning. Parl. Comm. Env., Wellington. 105 pp.

Payton, I.J., Lee, W.G., Dolby, R., Mark, A.F. 1986. Nutrient concentrations in narrow-leaved snow tussock (Chionochloa rigida) after spring burning. N. Z. J. Bot. 24: 529-537.

Payton, I.J., Mark, A.F. 1979. Long-term effects of burning on growth, flowering and carbohydrate reserves in narrow-leaved snow tussock (Chionochloa rigida). N.Z.J.Bot. 17: 43-54.

Petrie, D. 1912. Report on the grass-denuded lands of Central Otago. N.Z.Dept. Agric. Ind. & Comm. Bull. 28. 16 pp.

Royal Commission to inquire and report on the sheep-farming industry in New Zealand. 1945. Report. App. J. House Reps. H46A. 220 pp.

Treskonova, M.M. 1991. Changes in the structure of tall tussock grasslands and infestation by species of Hieracium in the Mackenzie country, New Zealand. N.Z.J.Ecol. 15: 65-78.

Thomson, G.M. 1922. The naturalisation of animals and plants in New Zealand. Cambridge Univ. Press, London. 607 pp.

Tussock Grassland Research Committee. 1954. The high-altitude snow-tussock grassland in the South Island, New Zealand. N.Z.J.Sci.Tech. A36: 335-364.

Zotov, V.D. 1938. Survey of the tussock-grasslands of the South Island, New Zealand, preliminary report. N.Z.J.Sci.Tech. 19: 474-487.

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